RandomSec/tests/data/nobel-prize-winners.csv

year,discipline,winner,desc
1901,chemistry,Jacobus H. van 't Hoff,in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions
1901,literature,Sully Prudhomme,"in special recognition of his poetic composition, which gives evidence of lofty idealism, artistic perfection and a rare combination of the qualities of both heart and intellect"
1901,medicine,Emil von Behring,"for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths"
1901,peace,Henry Dunant,
1901,peace,Frédéric Passy,
1901,physics,Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen,in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him
1902,chemistry,Emil Fischer,in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses
1902,literature,Theodor Mommsen,"the greatest living master of the art of historical writing, with special reference to his monumental work, <i>A history of Rome</i>"
1902,medicine,Ronald Ross,"for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it"
1902,peace,&Eacute;lie Ducommun,
1902,peace,Albert Gobat,
1902,physics,Hendrik A. Lorentz,in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena
1902,physics,Pieter Zeeman,in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena
1903,chemistry,Svante Arrhenius,in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation
1903,literature,Bj&oslash;rnstjerne Bj&oslash;rnson,"as a tribute to his noble, magnificent and versatile poetry, which has always been distinguished by both the freshness of its inspiration and the rare purity of its spirit"
1903,medicine,Niels Ryberg Finsen,"in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science"
1903,peace,Randal Cremer,
1903,physics,Henri Becquerel,
1903,physics,Pierre Curie,
1903,physics,Marie Curie,
1904,chemistry,Sir William Ramsay,"in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system"
1904,literature,Jos&eacute; Echegaray,
1904,literature,Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Mistral,
1904,medicine,Ivan Pavlov,"in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"
1904,peace,Institute of International Law,
1904,physics,Lord Rayleigh,for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies
1905,chemistry,Adolf von Baeyer,"in recognition of his services in the advancement of organic chemistry and the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds"
1905,literature,Henryk Sienkiewicz,because of his outstanding merits as an epic writer
1905,medicine,Robert Koch,for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis
1905,peace,Bertha von Suttner,
1905,physics,Philipp Lenard,for his work on cathode rays
1906,chemistry,Henri Moissan,"in recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the adoption in the service of science of the electric furnace called after him"
1906,literature,Giosu&egrave; Carducci,"not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces"
1906,medicine,Camillo Golgi,in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system
1906,medicine,Santiago Ram&oacute;n y Cajal,in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system
1906,peace,Theodore Roosevelt,
1906,physics,J.J. Thomson,in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases
1907,chemistry,Eduard Buchner,for his biochemical researches and his discovery of cell-free fermentation
1907,literature,Rudyard Kipling,"in consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterize the creations of this world-famous author"
1907,medicine,Alphonse Laveran,in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases
1907,peace,Ernesto Teodoro Moneta,
1907,peace,Louis Renault,
1907,physics,Albert A. Michelson,for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid
1908,chemistry,Ernest Rutherford,"for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances"
1908,literature,Rudolf Eucken,"in recognition of his earnest search for truth, his penetrating power of thought, his wide range of vision, and the warmth and strength in presentation with which in his numerous works he has vindicated and developed an idealistic philosophy of life"
1908,medicine,Paul Ehrlich,in recognition of their work on immunity
1908,medicine,Ilya Mechnikov,in recognition of their work on immunity
1908,peace,Klas Pontus Arnoldson,
1908,peace,Fredrik Bajer,
1908,physics,Gabriel Lippmann,for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference
1909,chemistry,Wilhelm Ostwald,in recognition of his work on catalysis and for his investigations into the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of reaction
1909,literature,Selma Lagerl&ouml;f,"in appreciation of the lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterize her writings"
1909,medicine,Theodor Kocher,"for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"
1909,peace,Auguste Beernaert,
1909,peace,Paul Henri d'Estournelles de Constant,
1909,physics,Ferdinand Braun,in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy
1909,physics,Guglielmo Marconi,in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy
1910,chemistry,Otto Wallach,in recognition of his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his pioneer work in the field of alicyclic compounds
1910,literature,Paul Heyse,"as a tribute to the consummate artistry, permeated with idealism, which he has demonstrated during his long productive career as a lyric poet, dramatist, novelist and writer of world-renowned short stories"
1910,medicine,Albrecht Kossel,"in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"
1910,peace,Permanent International Peace Bureau,
1910,physics,Johannes Diderik van der Waals,for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids
1911,chemistry,Marie Curie,"in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element"
1911,literature,Maurice Maeterlinck,"in appreciation of his many-sided literary activities, and especially of his dramatic works, which are distinguished by a wealth of imagination and by a poetic fancy, which reveals, sometimes in the guise of a fairy tale, a deep inspiration, while in a mysterious way they appeal to the readers' own feelings and stimulate their imaginations"
1911,medicine,Allvar Gullstrand,for his work on the dioptrics of the eye
1911,peace,Tobias Asser,
1911,peace,Alfred Fried,
1911,physics,Wilhelm Wien,for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat
1912,chemistry,Victor Grignard,
1912,chemistry,Paul Sabatier,
1912,literature,Gerhart Hauptmann,"primarily in recognition of his fruitful, varied and outstanding production in the realm of dramatic art"
1912,medicine,Alexis Carrel,in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs
1912,peace,Elihu Root,
1912,physics,Gustaf Dal&eacute;n,for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys
1913,chemistry,Alfred Werner,in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry
1913,literature,Rabindranath Tagore,"because of his profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic thought, expressed in his own English words, a part of the literature of the West"
1913,medicine,Charles Richet,in recognition of his work on anaphylaxis
1913,peace,Henri La Fontaine,
1913,physics,Heike Kamerlingh Onnes,"for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium"
1914,chemistry,Theodore W. Richards,in recognition of his accurate determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of chemical elements
1914,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1914,medicine,Robert B&aacute;r&aacute;ny,for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus
1914,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1914,physics,Max von Laue,for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals
1915,chemistry,Richard Willst&auml;tter,"for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll"
1915,literature,Romain Rolland,as a tribute to the lofty idealism of his literary production and to the sympathy and love of truth with which he has described different types of human beings
1915,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1915,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1915,physics,William Bragg,for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays
1915,physics,Lawrence Bragg,for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays
1916,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1916,literature,Verner von Heidenstam,in recognition of his significance as the leading representative of a new era in our literature
1916,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1916,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1916,physics,No Prize was Awarded,
1917,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1917,literature,Karl Gjellerup,
1917,literature,Henrik Pontoppidan,
1917,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1917,peace,International Committee of the Red Cross,
1917,physics,Charles Glover Barkla,for his discovery of the characteristic R&ouml;ntgen radiation of the elements
1918,chemistry,Fritz Haber,for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements
1918,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1918,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1918,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1918,physics,Max Planck,in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta
1919,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1919,literature,Carl Spitteler,"in special appreciation of his epic, <i>Olympian Spring</i>"
1919,medicine,Jules Bordet,for his discoveries relating to immunity
1919,peace,Woodrow Wilson,
1919,physics,Johannes Stark,for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields
1920,chemistry,Walther Nernst,in recognition of his work in thermochemistry
1920,literature,Knut Hamsun,"for his monumental work, <i>Growth of the Soil</i>"
1920,medicine,August Krogh,for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism
1920,peace,L&eacute;on Bourgeois,
1920,physics,Charles Edouard Guillaume,in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys
1921,chemistry,Frederick Soddy,"for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes"
1921,literature,Anatole France,"in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament"
1921,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1921,peace,Hjalmar Branting,
1921,peace,Christian Lange,
1921,physics,Albert Einstein,"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
1922,chemistry,Francis W. Aston,"for his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule"
1922,literature,Jacinto Benavente,for the happy manner in which he has continued the illustrious traditions of the Spanish drama
1922,medicine,Archibald V. Hill,
1922,medicine,Otto Meyerhof,
1922,peace,Fridtjof Nansen,
1922,physics,Niels Bohr,for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them
1923,chemistry,Fritz Pregl,for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances
1923,literature,William Butler Yeats,"for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation"
1923,medicine,Frederick G. Banting,for the discovery of insulin
1923,medicine,John Macleod,for the discovery of insulin
1923,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1923,physics,Robert A. Millikan,for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect
1924,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1924,literature,Wladyslaw Reymont,"for his great national epic, <i>The Peasants</i>"
1924,medicine,Willem Einthoven,for his discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram
1924,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1924,physics,Manne Siegbahn,for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy
1925,chemistry,Richard Zsigmondy,"for his demonstration of the heterogenous nature of colloid solutions and for the methods he used, which have since become fundamental in modern colloid chemistry"
1925,literature,George Bernard Shaw,"for his work which is marked by both idealism and humanity, its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty"
1925,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1925,peace,Sir Austen Chamberlain,
1925,peace,Charles G. Dawes,
1925,physics,James Franck,for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom
1925,physics,Gustav Hertz,for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom
1926,chemistry,The Svedberg,for his work on disperse systems
1926,literature,Grazia Deledda,for her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general
1926,medicine,Johannes Fibiger,for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma
1926,peace,Aristide Briand,
1926,peace,Gustav Stresemann,
1926,physics,Jean Baptiste Perrin,"for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium"
1927,chemistry,Heinrich Wieland,for his investigations of the constitution of the bile acids and related substances
1927,literature,Henri Bergson,in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brillant skill with which they have been presented
1927,medicine,Julius Wagner-Jauregg,for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica
1927,peace,Ferdinand Buisson,
1927,peace,Ludwig Quidde,
1927,physics,Arthur H. Compton,
1927,physics,C.T.R. Wilson,
1928,chemistry,Adolf Windaus,for the services rendered through his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins
1928,literature,Sigrid Undset,principially for her powerful descriptions of Northern life during the Middle Ages
1928,medicine,Charles Nicolle,for his work on typhus
1928,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1928,physics,Owen Willans Richardson,for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him
1929,chemistry,Arthur Harden,for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes
1929,chemistry,Hans von Euler-Chelpin,for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes
1929,literature,Thomas Mann,"principally for his great novel, <i>Buddenbrooks</i>, which has won steadily increased recognition as one of the classic works of contemporary literature"
1929,medicine,Christiaan Eijkman,
1929,medicine,Sir Frederick Hopkins,
1929,peace,Frank B. Kellogg,
1929,physics,Louis de Broglie,for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons
1930,chemistry,Hans Fischer,for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin
1930,literature,Sinclair Lewis,"for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humour, new types of characters"
1930,medicine,Karl Landsteiner,for his discovery of human blood groups
1930,peace,Nathan S&ouml;derblom,
1930,physics,Venkata Raman,for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him
1931,chemistry,Friedrich Bergius,in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods
1931,chemistry,Carl Bosch,in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods
1931,literature,Erik Axel Karlfeldt,The poetry of Erik Axel Karlfeldt
1931,medicine,Otto Warburg,for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme
1931,peace,Jane Addams,
1931,peace,Nicholas Murray Butler,
1931,physics,No Prize was Awarded,
1932,chemistry,Irving Langmuir,for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry
1932,literature,John Galsworthy,for his distinguished art of narration which takes its highest form in <i>The Forsyte Saga</i>
1932,medicine,Edgar Adrian,for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons
1932,medicine,Sir Charles Sherrington,for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons
1932,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1932,physics,Werner Heisenberg,"for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen"
1933,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1933,literature,Ivan Bunin,for the strict artistry with which he has carried on the classical Russian traditions in prose writing
1933,medicine,Thomas H. Morgan,for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity
1933,peace,Sir Norman Angell,
1933,physics,Paul A.M. Dirac,for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory
1933,physics,Erwin Schr&ouml;dinger,for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory
1934,chemistry,Harold C. Urey,for his discovery of heavy hydrogen
1934,literature,Luigi Pirandello,for his bold and ingenious revival of dramatic and scenic art
1934,medicine,George R. Minot,for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia
1934,medicine,William P. Murphy,for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia
1934,medicine,George H. Whipple,for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia
1934,peace,Arthur Henderson,
1934,physics,No Prize was Awarded,
1935,chemistry,Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Joliot,in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements
1935,chemistry,Ir&egrave;ne Joliot-Curie,in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements
1935,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1935,medicine,Hans Spemann,for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development
1935,peace,Carl von Ossietzky,
1935,physics,James Chadwick,for the discovery of the neutron
1936,chemistry,Peter Debye,for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases
1936,literature,Eugene O'Neill,"for the power, honesty and deep-felt emotions of his dramatic works, which embody an original concept of tragedy"
1936,medicine,Sir Henry Dale,for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses
1936,medicine,Otto Loewi,for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses
1936,peace,Carlos Saavedra Lamas,
1936,physics,Carl D. Anderson,
1936,physics,Victor F. Hess,
1937,chemistry,Norman Haworth,
1937,chemistry,Paul Karrer,
1937,literature,Roger Martin du Gard,for the artistic power and truth with which he has depicted human conflict as well as some fundamental aspects of contemporary life in his novel-cycle <i>Les Thibault</i>
1937,medicine,Albert Szent-Gy&ouml;rgyi,"for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"
1937,peace,Robert Cecil,
1937,physics,Clinton Davisson,for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals
1937,physics,George Paget Thomson,for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals
1938,chemistry,Richard Kuhn,for his work on carotenoids and vitamins
1938,literature,Pearl Buck,for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant life in China and for her biographical masterpieces
1938,medicine,Corneille Heymans,for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration
1938,peace,Nansen International Office for Refugees,
1938,physics,Enrico Fermi,"for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"
1939,chemistry,Adolf Butenandt,
1939,chemistry,Leopold Ruzicka,
1939,literature,Frans Eemil Sillanp&auml;&auml;,for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature
1939,medicine,Gerhard Domagk,for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil
1939,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1939,physics,Ernest Lawrence,"for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements"
1940,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1940,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1940,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1940,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1940,physics,No Prize was Awarded,
1941,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1941,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1941,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1941,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1941,physics,No Prize was Awarded,
1942,chemistry,No Prize was Awarded,
1942,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1942,medicine,No Prize was Awarded,
1942,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1942,physics,No Prize was Awarded,
1943,chemistry,George de Hevesy,for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes
1943,literature,No Prize was Awarded,
1943,medicine,Henrik Dam,
1943,medicine,Edward A. Doisy,
1943,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1943,physics,Otto Stern,for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton
1944,chemistry,Otto Hahn,for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei
1944,literature,Johannes V. Jensen,"for the rare strength and fertility of his poetic imagination with which is combined an intellectual curiosity of wide scope and a bold, freshly creative style"
1944,medicine,Joseph Erlanger,for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres
1944,medicine,Herbert S. Gasser,for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres
1944,peace,International Committee of the Red Cross,
1944,physics,Isidor Isaac Rabi,for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei
1945,chemistry,Artturi Virtanen,"for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method"
1945,literature,Gabriela Mistral,"for her lyric poetry which, inspired by powerful emotions, has made her name a symbol of the idealistic aspirations of the entire Latin American world"
1945,medicine,Ernst B. Chain,for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases
1945,medicine,Sir Alexander Fleming,for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases
1945,medicine,Sir Howard Florey,for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases
1945,peace,Cordell Hull,
1945,physics,Wolfgang Pauli,"for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle"
1946,chemistry,John H. Northrop,
1946,chemistry,Wendell M. Stanley,
1946,chemistry,James B. Sumner,
1946,literature,Hermann Hesse,"for his inspired writings which, while growing in boldness and penetration, exemplify the classical humanitarian ideals and high qualities of style"
1946,medicine,Hermann J. Muller,for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation
1946,peace,Emily Greene Balch,
1946,peace,John R. Mott,
1946,physics,Percy W. Bridgman,"for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure physics"
1947,chemistry,Sir Robert Robinson,"for his investigations on plant products of biological importance, especially the alkaloids"
1947,literature,Andr&eacute; Gide,"for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight"
1947,medicine,Carl Cori,
1947,medicine,Gerty Cori,
1947,medicine,Bernardo Houssay,
1947,peace,Friends Service Council,
1947,peace,American Friends Service Committee,
1947,physics,Edward V. Appleton,for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer
1948,chemistry,Arne Tiselius,"for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins"
1948,literature,T.S. Eliot,"for his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry"
1948,medicine,Paul M&uuml;ller,for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods
1948,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1948,physics,Patrick M.S. Blackett,"for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation"
1949,chemistry,William F. Giauque,"for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics, particularly concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures"
1949,literature,William Faulkner,for his powerful and artistically unique contribution to the modern American novel
1949,medicine,Walter Hess,
1949,medicine,Egas Moniz,
1949,peace,Lord Boyd Orr,
1949,physics,Hideki Yukawa,for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces
1950,chemistry,Kurt Alder,for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis
1950,chemistry,Otto Diels,for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis
1950,literature,Bertrand Russell,in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought
1950,medicine,Philip S. Hench,"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
1950,medicine,Edward C. Kendall,"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
1950,medicine,Tadeus Reichstein,"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
1950,peace,Ralph Bunche,
1950,physics,Cecil Powell,for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method
1951,chemistry,Edwin M. McMillan,for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements
1951,chemistry,Glenn T. Seaborg,for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements
1951,literature,P&auml;r Lagerkvist,for the artistic vigour and true independence of mind with which he endeavours in his poetry to find answers to the eternal questions confronting mankind
1951,medicine,Max Theiler,for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it
1951,peace,L&eacute;on Jouhaux,
1951,physics,John Cockcroft,for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles
1951,physics,Ernest T.S. Walton,for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles
1952,chemistry,Archer J.P. Martin,for their invention of partition chromatography
1952,chemistry,Richard L.M. Synge,for their invention of partition chromatography
1952,literature,Fran&ccedil;ois Mauriac,for the deep spiritual insight and the artistic intensity with which he has in his novels penetrated the drama of human life
1952,medicine,Selman A. Waksman,"for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"
1952,peace,Albert Schweitzer,
1952,physics,Felix Bloch,for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith
1952,physics,E. M. Purcell,for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith
1953,chemistry,Hermann Staudinger,for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry
1953,literature,Winston Churchill,for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values
1953,medicine,Hans Krebs,
1953,medicine,Fritz Lipmann,
1953,peace,George C. Marshall,
1953,physics,Frits Zernike,"for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope"
1954,chemistry,Linus Pauling,for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances
1954,literature,Ernest Hemingway,"for his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in <i>The Old Man and the Sea,</i> and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style"
1954,medicine,John F. Enders,for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue
1954,medicine,Frederick C. Robbins,for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue
1954,medicine,Thomas H. Weller,for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue
1954,peace,Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
1954,physics,Max Born,
1954,physics,Walther Bothe,
1955,chemistry,Vincent du Vigneaud,"for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone"
1955,literature,Halld&oacute;r Laxness,for his vivid epic power which has renewed the great narrative art of Iceland
1955,medicine,Hugo Theorell,for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes
1955,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1955,physics,Polykarp Kusch,
1955,physics,Willis E. Lamb,
1956,chemistry,Sir Cyril Hinshelwood,for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions
1956,chemistry,Nikolay Semenov,for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions
1956,literature,Juan Ram&oacute;n Jim&eacute;nez,"for his lyrical poetry, which in Spanish language constitutes an example of high spirit and artistical purity"
1956,medicine,Andr&eacute; F. Cournand,for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system
1956,medicine,Werner Forssmann,for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system
1956,medicine,Dickinson W. Richards,for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system
1956,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1956,physics,John Bardeen,for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect
1956,physics,Walter H. Brattain,for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect
1956,physics,William B. Shockley,for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect
1957,chemistry,Lord Todd,for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes
1957,literature,Albert Camus,"for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times"
1957,medicine,Daniel Bovet,"for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles"
1957,peace,Lester Bowles Pearson,
1957,physics,Tsung-Dao Lee,for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles
1957,physics,Chen Ning Yang,for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles
1958,chemistry,Frederick Sanger,"for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin"
1958,literature,Boris Pasternak,for his important achievement both in contemporary lyrical poetry and in the field of the great Russian epic tradition
1958,medicine,George Beadle,
1958,medicine,Joshua Lederberg,
1958,medicine,Edward Tatum,
1958,peace,Georges Pire,
1958,physics,Pavel A. Cherenkov,for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect
1958,physics,Il&acute;ja M. Frank,for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect
1958,physics,Igor Y. Tamm,for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect
1959,chemistry,Jaroslav Heyrovsky,for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis
1959,literature,Salvatore Quasimodo,"for his lyrical poetry, which with classical fire expresses the tragic experience of life in our own times"
1959,medicine,Arthur Kornberg,for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid
1959,medicine,Severo Ochoa,for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid
1959,peace,Philip Noel-Baker,
1959,physics,Owen Chamberlain,for their discovery of the antiproton
1959,physics,Emilio Segr&egrave;,for their discovery of the antiproton
1960,chemistry,Willard F. Libby,"for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science"
1960,literature,Saint-John Perse,for the soaring flight and the evocative imagery of his poetry which in a visionary fashion reflects the conditions of our time
1960,medicine,Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet,for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance
1960,medicine,Peter Medawar,for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance
1960,peace,Albert Lutuli,
1960,physics,Donald A. Glaser,for the invention of the bubble chamber
1961,chemistry,Melvin Calvin,for his research on the carbon dioxide assimilation in plants
1961,literature,Ivo Andric,for the epic force with which he has traced themes and depicted human destinies drawn from the history of his country
1961,medicine,Georg von B&eacute;k&eacute;sy,for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea
1961,peace,Dag Hammarskj&ouml;ld,
1961,physics,Robert Hofstadter,
1961,physics,Rudolf M&ouml;ssbauer,
1962,chemistry,John C. Kendrew,for their studies of the structures of globular proteins
1962,chemistry,Max F. Perutz,for their studies of the structures of globular proteins
1962,literature,John Steinbeck,"for his realistic and imaginative writings, combining as they do sympathetic humour and keen social perception"
1962,medicine,Francis Crick,for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material
1962,medicine,James Watson,for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material
1962,medicine,Maurice Wilkins,for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material
1962,peace,Linus Pauling,
1962,physics,Lev Landau,"for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium"
1963,chemistry,Giulio Natta,for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers
1963,chemistry,Karl Ziegler,for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers
1963,literature,Giorgos Seferis,"for his eminent lyrical writing, inspired by a deep feeling for the Hellenic world of culture"
1963,medicine,Sir John Eccles,for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane
1963,medicine,Alan L. Hodgkin,for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane
1963,medicine,Andrew F. Huxley,for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane
1963,peace,International Committee of the Red Cross,
1963,peace,League of Red Cross Societies,
1963,physics,Maria Goeppert-Mayer,
1963,physics,J. Hans D. Jensen,
1963,physics,Eugene Wigner,
1964,chemistry,Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin,for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances
1964,literature,Jean-Paul Sartre,"for his work which, rich in ideas and filled with the spirit of freedom and the quest for truth, has exerted a far-reaching influence on our age"
1964,medicine,Konrad Bloch,for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism
1964,medicine,Feodor Lynen,for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism
1964,peace,Martin Luther King,
1964,physics,Nicolay G. Basov,"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
1964,physics,Aleksandr M. Prokhorov,"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
1964,physics,Charles H. Townes,"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
1965,chemistry,Robert B. Woodward,for his outstanding achievements in the art of organic synthesis
1965,literature,Mikhail Sholokhov,"for the artistic power and integrity with which, in his epic of the Don, he has given expression to a historic phase in the life of the Russian people"
1965,medicine,Fran&ccedil;ois Jacob,for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis
1965,medicine,Andr&eacute; Lwoff,for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis
1965,medicine,Jacques Monod,for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis
1965,peace,United Nations Children's Fund,
1965,physics,Richard P. Feynman,"for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
1965,physics,Julian Schwinger,"for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
1965,physics,Sin-Itiro Tomonaga,"for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
1966,chemistry,Robert S. Mulliken,for his fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method
1966,literature,Samuel Agnon,
1966,literature,Nelly Sachs,
1966,medicine,Charles B. Huggins,
1966,medicine,Peyton Rous,
1966,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1966,physics,Alfred Kastler,for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms
1967,chemistry,Manfred Eigen,"for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"
1967,chemistry,Ronald G.W. Norrish,"for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"
1967,chemistry,George Porter,"for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"
1967,literature,Miguel Angel Asturias,"for his vivid literary achievement, deep-rooted in the national traits and traditions of Indian peoples of Latin America"
1967,medicine,Ragnar Granit,for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye
1967,medicine,Haldan K. Hartline,for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye
1967,medicine,George Wald,for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye
1967,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1967,physics,Hans Bethe,"for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars"
1968,chemistry,Lars Onsager,"for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes"
1968,literature,Yasunari Kawabata,"for his narrative mastery, which with great sensibility expresses the essence of the Japanese mind"
1968,medicine,Robert W. Holley,for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis
1968,medicine,H. Gobind Khorana,for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis
1968,medicine,Marshall W. Nirenberg,for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis
1968,peace,Ren&eacute; Cassin,
1968,physics,Luis Alvarez,"for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis"
1969,chemistry,Derek Barton,for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry
1969,chemistry,Odd Hassel,for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry
1969,economics,Ragnar Frisch,for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes
1969,economics,Jan Tinbergen,for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes
1969,literature,Samuel Beckett,"for his writing, which - in new forms for the novel and drama - in the destitution of modern man acquires its elevation"
1969,medicine,Max Delbr&uuml;ck,for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses
1969,medicine,Alfred D. Hershey,for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses
1969,medicine,Salvador E. Luria,for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses
1969,peace,International Labour Organization,
1969,physics,Murray Gell-Mann,for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions
1970,chemistry,Luis Leloir,for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates
1970,economics,Paul A. Samuelson,for the scientific work through which he has developed static and dynamic economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of analysis in economic science
1970,literature,Alexandr Solzhenitsyn,for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature
1970,medicine,Julius Axelrod,"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
1970,medicine,Sir Bernard Katz,"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
1970,medicine,Ulf von Euler,"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
1970,peace,Norman Borlaug,
1970,physics,Hannes Alfv&eacute;n,
1970,physics,Louis N&eacute;el,
1971,chemistry,Gerhard Herzberg,"for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals"
1971,economics,Simon Kuznets,for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development
1971,literature,Pablo Neruda,for a poetry that with the action of an elemental force brings alive a continent's destiny and dreams
1971,medicine,"Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.",for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones
1971,peace,Willy Brandt,
1971,physics,Dennis Gabor,for his invention and development of the holographic method
1972,chemistry,Christian Anfinsen,
1972,chemistry,Stanford Moore,
1972,chemistry,William H. Stein,
1972,economics,Kenneth J. Arrow,for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory
1972,economics,John R. Hicks,for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory
1972,literature,Heinrich B&ouml;ll,for his writing which through its combination of a broad perspective on his time and a sensitive skill in characterization has contributed to a renewal of German literature
1972,medicine,Gerald M. Edelman,for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies
1972,medicine,Rodney R. Porter,for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies
1972,peace,No Prize was Awarded,
1972,physics,John Bardeen,"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
1972,physics,Leon N. Cooper,"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
1972,physics,Robert Schrieffer,"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
1973,chemistry,Ernst Otto Fischer,"for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds"
1973,chemistry,Geoffrey Wilkinson,"for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds"
1973,economics,Wassily Leontief,for the development of the input-output method and for its application to important economic problems
1973,literature,Patrick White,for an epic and psychological narrative art which has introduced a new continent into literature
1973,medicine,Konrad Lorenz,for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns
1973,medicine,Nikolaas Tinbergen,for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns
1973,medicine,Karl von Frisch,for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns
1973,peace,Le Duc Tho,
1973,peace,Henry Kissinger,
1973,physics,Leo Esaki,
1973,physics,Ivar Giaever,
1973,physics,Brian D. Josephson,
1974,chemistry,Paul J. Flory,"for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules"
1974,economics,Gunnar Myrdal,"for their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena"
1974,economics,Friedrich August von Hayek,"for their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena"
1974,literature,Eyvind Johnson,
1974,literature,Harry Martinson,
1974,medicine,Albert Claude,for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell
1974,medicine,Christian de Duve,for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell
1974,medicine,George E. Palade,for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell
1974,peace,Se&aacute;n MacBride,
1974,peace,Eisaku Sato,
1974,physics,Antony Hewish,"for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
1974,physics,Martin Ryle,"for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
1975,chemistry,John Cornforth,
1975,chemistry,Vladimir Prelog,
1975,economics,Leonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich,for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources
1975,economics,Tjalling C. Koopmans,for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources
1975,literature,Eugenio Montale,"for his distinctive poetry which, with great artistic sensitivity, has interpreted human values under the sign of an outlook on life with no illusions"
1975,medicine,David Baltimore,for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell
1975,medicine,Renato Dulbecco,for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell
1975,medicine,Howard M. Temin,for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell
1975,peace,Andrei Sakharov,
1975,physics,Aage N. Bohr,for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection
1975,physics,Ben R. Mottelson,for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection
1975,physics,James Rainwater,for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection
1976,chemistry,William Lipscomb,for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding
1976,economics,Milton Friedman,"for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy"
1976,literature,Saul Bellow,for the human understanding and subtle analysis of contemporary culture that are combined in his work
1976,medicine,Baruch S. Blumberg,for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases
1976,medicine,D. Carleton Gajdusek,for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases
1976,peace,Mairead Corrigan,
1976,peace,Betty Williams,
1976,physics,Burton Richter,for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind
1976,physics,Samuel C.C. Ting,for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind
1977,chemistry,Ilya Prigogine,"for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures"
1977,economics,James E. Meade,for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements
1977,economics,Bertil Ohlin,for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements
1977,literature,Vicente Aleixandre,"for a creative poetic writing which illuminates man's condition in the cosmos and in present-day society, at the same time representing the great renewal of the traditions of Spanish poetry beween the wars"
1977,medicine,Roger Guillemin,
1977,medicine,Andrew V. Schally,
1977,medicine,Rosalyn Yalow,
1977,peace,Amnesty International,
1977,physics,Philip W. Anderson,for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems
1977,physics,Sir Nevill F. Mott,for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems
1977,physics,John H. van Vleck,for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems
1978,chemistry,Peter Mitchell,for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory
1978,economics,Herbert A. Simon,for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations
1978,literature,Isaac Bashevis Singer,"for his impassioned narrative art which, with roots in a Polish-Jewish cultural tradition, brings universal human conditions to life"
1978,medicine,Werner Arber,for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics
1978,medicine,Daniel Nathans,for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics
1978,medicine,Hamilton O. Smith,for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics
1978,peace,Anwar al-Sadat,
1978,peace,Menachem Begin,
1978,physics,Pyotr Kapitsa,
1978,physics,Arno Penzias,
1978,physics,Robert Woodrow Wilson,
1979,chemistry,Herbert C. Brown,"for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis"
1979,chemistry,Georg Wittig,"for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis"
1979,economics,Sir Arthur Lewis,for their pioneering research into economic development research with particular consideration of the problems of developing countries
1979,economics,Theodore W. Schultz,for their pioneering research into economic development research with particular consideration of the problems of developing countries
1979,literature,Odysseus Elytis,"for his poetry, which, against the background of Greek tradition, depicts with sensuous strength and intellectual clear-sightedness modern man's struggle for freedom and creativeness"
1979,medicine,Allan M. Cormack,for the development of computer assisted tomography
1979,medicine,Godfrey N. Hounsfield,for the development of computer assisted tomography
1979,peace,Mother Teresa,
1979,physics,Sheldon Glashow,"for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
1979,physics,Abdus Salam,"for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
1979,physics,Steven Weinberg,"for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
1980,chemistry,Paul Berg,
1980,chemistry,Walter Gilbert,
1980,chemistry,Frederick Sanger,
1980,economics,Lawrence R. Klein,for the creation of econometric models and the application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies
1980,literature,Czeslaw Milosz,who with uncompromising clear-sightedness voices man's exposed condition in a world of severe conflicts
1980,medicine,Baruj Benacerraf,for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions
1980,medicine,Jean Dausset,for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions
1980,medicine,George D. Snell,for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions
1980,peace,Adolfo P&eacute;rez Esquivel,
1980,physics,James Cronin,for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons
1980,physics,Val Fitch,for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons
1981,chemistry,Kenichi Fukui,"for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions"
1981,chemistry,Roald Hoffmann,"for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions"
1981,economics,James Tobin,"for his analysis of financial markets and their relations to expenditure decisions, employment, production and prices"
1981,literature,Elias Canetti,"for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power"
1981,medicine,David H. Hubel,
1981,medicine,Roger W. Sperry,
1981,medicine,Torsten N. Wiesel,
1981,peace,Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
1981,physics,Nicolaas Bloembergen,
1981,physics,Arthur L. Schawlow,
1981,physics,Kai M. Siegbahn,
1982,chemistry,Aaron Klug,for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes
1982,economics,George J. Stigler,"for his seminal studies of industrial structures, functioning of markets and causes and effects of public regulation"
1982,literature,Gabriel Garc&iacute;a M&aacute;rquez,"for his novels and short stories, in which the fantastic and the realistic are combined in a richly composed world of imagination, reflecting a continent's life and conflicts"
1982,medicine,Sune K. Bergstr&ouml;m,for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances
1982,medicine,Bengt I. Samuelsson,for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances
1982,medicine,John R. Vane,for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances
1982,peace,Alfonso Garc&iacute;a Robles,
1982,peace,Alva Myrdal,
1982,physics,Kenneth G. Wilson,for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions
1983,chemistry,Henry Taube,"for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes"
1983,economics,Gerard Debreu,for having incorporated new analytical methods into economic theory and for his rigorous reformulation of the theory of general equilibrium
1983,literature,William Golding,"for his novels which, with the perspicuity of realistic narrative art and the diversity and universality of myth, illuminate the human condition in the world of today"
1983,medicine,Barbara McClintock,for her discovery of mobile genetic elements
1983,peace,Lech Walesa,
1983,physics,Subramanyan Chandrasekhar,
1983,physics,William A. Fowler,
1984,chemistry,Bruce Merrifield,for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix
1984,economics,Richard Stone,for having made fundamental contributions to the development of systems of national accounts and hence greatly improved the basis for empirical economic analysis
1984,literature,Jaroslav Seifert,"for his poetry which endowed with freshness, sensuality and rich inventiveness provides a liberating image of the indomitable spirit and versatility of man"
1984,medicine,Niels K. Jerne,for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies
1984,medicine,Georges J.F. K&ouml;hler,for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies
1984,medicine,C&eacute;sar Milstein,for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies
1984,peace,Desmond Tutu,
1984,physics,Carlo Rubbia,"for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction"
1984,physics,Simon van der Meer,"for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction"
1985,chemistry,Herbert A. Hauptman,for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures
1985,chemistry,Jerome Karle,for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures
1985,economics,Franco Modigliani,for his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets
1985,literature,Claude Simon,who in his novel combines the poet's and the painter's creativeness with a deepened awareness of time in the depiction of the human condition
1985,medicine,Michael S. Brown,for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism
1985,medicine,Joseph L. Goldstein,for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism
1985,peace,International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War,
1985,physics,Klaus von Klitzing,for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect
1986,chemistry,Dudley R. Herschbach,for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes
1986,chemistry,Yuan T. Lee,for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes
1986,chemistry,John C. Polanyi,for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes
1986,economics,James M. Buchanan Jr.,for his development of the contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making
1986,literature,Wole Soyinka,who in a wide cultural perspective and with poetic overtones fashions the drama of existence
1986,medicine,Stanley Cohen,for their discoveries of growth factors
1986,medicine,Rita Levi-Montalcini,for their discoveries of growth factors
1986,peace,Elie Wiesel,
1986,physics,Gerd Binnig,
1986,physics,Heinrich Rohrer,
1986,physics,Ernst Ruska,
1987,chemistry,Donald J. Cram,for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity
1987,chemistry,Jean-Marie Lehn,for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity
1987,chemistry,Charles J. Pedersen,for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity
1987,economics,Robert M. Solow,for his contributions to the theory of economic growth
1987,literature,Joseph Brodsky,"for an all-embracing authorship, imbued with clarity of thought and poetic intensity"
1987,medicine,Susumu Tonegawa,for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity
1987,peace,Oscar Arias S&aacute;nchez,"for his work for peace in Central America, efforts which led to the accord signed in Guatemala on August 7 this year"
1987,physics,J. Georg Bednorz,for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials
1987,physics,K. Alex M&uuml;ller,for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials
1988,chemistry,Johann Deisenhofer,for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre
1988,chemistry,Robert Huber,for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre
1988,chemistry,Hartmut Michel,for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre
1988,economics,Maurice Allais,for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources
1988,literature,Naguib Mahfouz,"who, through works rich in nuance - now clear-sightedly realistic, now evocatively ambiguous - has formed an Arabian narrative art that applies to all mankind"
1988,medicine,Sir James W. Black,for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment
1988,medicine,Gertrude B. Elion,for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment
1988,medicine,George H. Hitchings,for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment
1988,peace,United Nations Peacekeeping Forces,
1988,physics,Leon M. Lederman,for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino
1988,physics,Melvin Schwartz,for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino
1988,physics,Jack Steinberger,for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino
1989,chemistry,Sidney Altman,for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA
1989,chemistry,Thomas R. Cech,for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA
1989,economics,Trygve Haavelmo,for his clarification of the probability theory foundations of econometrics and his analyses of simultaneous economic structures
1989,literature,Camilo Jos&eacute; Cela,"for a rich and intensive prose, which with restrained compassion forms a challenging vision of man's vulnerability"
1989,medicine,J. Michael Bishop,for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes
1989,medicine,Harold E. Varmus,for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes
1989,peace,The 14th Dalai Lama,
1989,physics,Hans G. Dehmelt,
1989,physics,Wolfgang Paul,
1989,physics,Norman F. Ramsey,
1990,chemistry,Elias James Corey,for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis
1990,economics,Harry M. Markowitz,for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics
1990,economics,Merton H. Miller,for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics
1990,economics,William F. Sharpe,for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics
1990,literature,Octavio Paz,"for impassioned writing with wide horizons, characterized by sensuous intelligence and humanistic integrity"
1990,medicine,Joseph E. Murray,for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease
1990,medicine,E. Donnall Thomas,for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease
1990,peace,Mikhail Gorbachev,for his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community
1990,physics,Jerome I. Friedman,"for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
1990,physics,Henry W. Kendall,"for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
1990,physics,Richard E. Taylor,"for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
1991,chemistry,Richard R. Ernst,for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
1991,economics,Ronald H. Coase,for his discovery and clarification of the significance of transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy
1991,literature,Nadine Gordimer,who through her magnificent epic writing has - in the words of Alfred Nobel - been of very great benefit to humanity
1991,medicine,Erwin Neher,for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells
1991,medicine,Bert Sakmann,for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells
1991,peace,Aung San Suu Kyi,for her non-violent struggle for democracy and human rights
1991,physics,Pierre-Gilles de Gennes,"for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers"
1992,chemistry,Rudolph A. Marcus,for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems
1992,economics,Gary S. Becker,"for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behaviour and interaction, including nonmarket behaviour"
1992,literature,Derek Walcott,"for a poetic oeuvre of great luminosity, sustained by a historical vision, the outcome of a multicultural commitment"
1992,medicine,Edmond H. Fischer,for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism
1992,medicine,Edwin G. Krebs,for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism
1992,peace,Rigoberta Mench&uacute; Tum,in recognition of her work for social justice and ethno-cultural reconciliation based on respect for the rights of indigenous peoples
1992,physics,Georges Charpak,"for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
1993,chemistry,Kary B. Mullis,for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry
1993,chemistry,Michael Smith,for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry
1993,economics,Robert W. Fogel,for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change
1993,economics,Douglass C. North,for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change
1993,literature,Toni Morrison,"who in novels characterized by visionary force and poetic import, gives life to an essential aspect of American reality"
1993,medicine,Richard J. Roberts,for their discoveries of split genes
1993,medicine,Phillip A. Sharp,for their discoveries of split genes
1993,peace,F.W. de Klerk,"for their work for the peaceful termination of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa"
1993,peace,Nelson Mandela,"for their work for the peaceful termination of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa"
1993,physics,Russell A. Hulse,"for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
1993,physics,Joseph H. Taylor Jr.,"for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
1994,chemistry,George A. Olah,for his contribution to carbocation chemistry
1994,economics,John C. Harsanyi,for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games
1994,economics,John F. Nash Jr.,for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games
1994,economics,Reinhard Selten,for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games
1994,literature,Kenzaburo Oe,"who with poetic force creates an imagined world, where life and myth condense to form a disconcerting picture of the human predicament today"
1994,medicine,Alfred G. Gilman,for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells
1994,medicine,Martin Rodbell,for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells
1994,peace,Yasser Arafat,for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East
1994,peace,Shimon Peres,for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East
1994,peace,Yitzhak Rabin,for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East
1994,physics,Bertram N. Brockhouse,for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter
1994,physics,Clifford G. Shull,for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter
1995,chemistry,Paul J. Crutzen,"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"
1995,chemistry,Mario J. Molina,"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"
1995,chemistry,F. Sherwood Rowland,"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"
1995,economics,Robert E. Lucas Jr.,"for having developed and applied the hypothesis of rational expectations, and thereby having transformed macroeconomic analysis and deepened our understanding of economic policy"
1995,literature,Seamus Heaney,"for works of lyrical beauty and ethical depth, which exalt everyday miracles and the living past"
1995,medicine,Edward B. Lewis,for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development
1995,medicine,Christiane N&uuml;sslein-Volhard,for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development
1995,medicine,Eric F. Wieschaus,for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development
1995,peace,Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs,"for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms"
1995,peace,Joseph Rotblat,"for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms"
1995,physics,Martin L. Perl,for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics
1995,physics,Frederick Reines,for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics
1996,chemistry,Robert F. Curl Jr.,for their discovery of fullerenes
1996,chemistry,Sir Harold Kroto,for their discovery of fullerenes
1996,chemistry,Richard E. Smalley,for their discovery of fullerenes
1996,economics,James A. Mirrlees,for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information
1996,economics,William Vickrey,for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information
1996,literature,Wislawa Szymborska,for poetry that with ironic precision allows the historical and biological context to come to light in fragments of human reality
1996,medicine,Peter C. Doherty,for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence
1996,medicine,Rolf M. Zinkernagel,for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence
1996,peace,Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo,for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor
1996,peace,Jos&eacute; Ramos-Horta,for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor
1996,physics,David M. Lee,for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3
1996,physics,Douglas D. Osheroff,for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3
1996,physics,Robert C. Richardson,for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3
1997,chemistry,Paul D. Boyer,
1997,chemistry,Jens C. Skou,
1997,chemistry,John E. Walker,
1997,economics,Robert C. Merton,for a new method to determine the value of derivatives
1997,economics,Myron S. Scholes,for a new method to determine the value of derivatives
1997,literature,Dario Fo,who emulates the jesters of the Middle Ages in scourging authority and upholding the dignity of the downtrodden
1997,medicine,Stanley B. Prusiner,for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection
1997,peace,International Campaign to Ban Landmines,for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines
1997,peace,Jody Williams,for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines
1997,physics,Steven Chu,for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light
1997,physics,Claude Cohen-Tannoudji,for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light
1997,physics,William D. Phillips,for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light
1998,chemistry,Walter Kohn,
1998,chemistry,John Pople,
1998,economics,Amartya Sen,for his contributions to welfare economics
1998,literature,Jos&eacute; Saramago,"who with parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony continually enables us once again to apprehend an elusory reality"
1998,medicine,Robert F. Furchgott,for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system
1998,medicine,Louis J. Ignarro,for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system
1998,medicine,Ferid Murad,for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system
1998,peace,John Hume,for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland
1998,peace,David Trimble,for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland
1998,physics,Robert B. Laughlin,for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations
1998,physics,Horst L. St&ouml;rmer,for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations
1998,physics,Daniel C. Tsui,for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations
1999,chemistry,Ahmed Zewail,for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy
1999,economics,Robert A. Mundell,for his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange rate regimes and his analysis of optimum currency areas
1999,literature,G&uuml;nter Grass,whose frolicsome black fables portray the forgotten face of history
1999,medicine,G&uuml;nter Blobel,for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell
1999,peace,M&eacute;decins Sans Fronti&egrave;res,in recognition of the organization's pioneering humanitarian work on several continents
1999,physics,Gerardus 't Hooft,for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics
1999,physics,Martinus J.G. Veltman,for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics
2000,chemistry,Alan Heeger,for the discovery and development of conductive polymers
2000,chemistry,Alan G. MacDiarmid,for the discovery and development of conductive polymers
2000,chemistry,Hideki Shirakawa,for the discovery and development of conductive polymers
2000,economics,James J. Heckman,
2000,economics,Daniel L. McFadden,
2000,literature,Gao Xingjian,"for an &oelig;uvre of universal validity, bitter insights and linguistic ingenuity, which has opened new paths for the Chinese novel and drama"
2000,medicine,Arvid Carlsson,for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system
2000,medicine,Paul Greengard,for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system
2000,medicine,Eric R. Kandel,for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system
2000,peace,Kim Dae-jung,"for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular"
2000,physics,Zhores I. Alferov,for basic work on information and communication technology
2000,physics,Jack S. Kilby,for basic work on information and communication technology
2000,physics,Herbert Kroemer,for basic work on information and communication technology
2001,chemistry,William S. Knowles,
2001,chemistry,Ryoji Noyori,
2001,chemistry,K. Barry Sharpless,
2001,economics,George A. Akerlof,for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information
2001,economics,A. Michael Spence,for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information
2001,economics,Joseph E. Stiglitz,for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information
2001,literature,V.S. Naipaul,for having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel us to see the presence of suppressed histories
2001,medicine,Leland H. Hartwell,for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle
2001,medicine,Tim Hunt,for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle
2001,medicine,Sir Paul Nurse,for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle
2001,peace,United Nations,for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world
2001,peace,Kofi Annan,for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world
2001,physics,Eric A. Cornell,"for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates"
2001,physics,Wolfgang Ketterle,"for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates"
2001,physics,Carl E. Wieman,"for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates"
2002,chemistry,John B. Fenn,for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules
2002,chemistry,Koichi Tanaka,for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules
2002,chemistry,Kurt W&uuml;thrich,for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules
2002,economics,Daniel Kahneman,
2002,economics,Vernon L. Smith,
2002,literature,Imre Kert&eacute;sz,for writing that upholds the fragile experience of the individual against the barbaric arbitrariness of history
2002,medicine,Sydney Brenner,for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'
2002,medicine,H. Robert Horvitz,for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'
2002,medicine,John E. Sulston,for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'
2002,peace,Jimmy Carter,"for his decades of untiring effort to find peaceful solutions to international conflicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to promote economic and social development"
2002,physics,Raymond Davis Jr.,
2002,physics,Riccardo Giacconi,
2002,physics,Masatoshi Koshiba,
2003,chemistry,Peter Agre,for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes
2003,chemistry,Roderick MacKinnon,for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes
2003,economics,Robert F. Engle III,
2003,economics,Clive W.J. Granger,
2003,literature,J.M. Coetzee,who in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider
2003,medicine,Paul C. Lauterbur,for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging
2003,medicine,Sir Peter Mansfield,for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging
2003,peace,Shirin Ebadi,for her efforts for democracy and human rights. She has focused especially on the struggle for the rights of women and children.
2003,physics,Alexei A. Abrikosov,for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids
2003,physics,Vitaly L. Ginzburg,for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids
2003,physics,Anthony J. Leggett,for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids
2004,chemistry,Aaron Ciechanover,for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation
2004,chemistry,Avram Hershko,for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation
2004,chemistry,Irwin Rose,for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation
2004,economics,Finn E. Kydland,for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles
2004,economics,Edward C. Prescott,for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles
2004,literature,Elfriede Jelinek,for her musical flow of voices and counter-voices in novels and plays that with extraordinary linguistic zeal reveal the absurdity of society's clich&eacute;s and their subjugating power
2004,medicine,Richard Axel,for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system
2004,medicine,Linda B. Buck,for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system
2004,peace,Wangari Maathai,"for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace"
2004,physics,David J. Gross,for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction
2004,physics,H. David Politzer,for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction
2004,physics,Frank Wilczek,for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction
2005,chemistry,Yves Chauvin,for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis
2005,chemistry,Robert H. Grubbs,for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis
2005,chemistry,Richard R. Schrock,for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis
2005,economics,Robert J. Aumann,for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis
2005,economics,Thomas C. Schelling,for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis
2005,literature,Harold Pinter,who in his plays uncovers the precipice under everyday prattle and forces entry into oppression's closed rooms
2005,medicine,Barry J. Marshall,for their discovery of the bacterium <i>Helicobacter pylori</i> and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease
2005,medicine,J. Robin Warren,for their discovery of the bacterium <i>Helicobacter pylori</i> and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease
2005,peace,International Atomic Energy Agency,for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way
2005,peace,Mohamed ElBaradei,for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way
2005,physics,Roy J. Glauber,
2005,physics,John L. Hall,
2005,physics,Theodor W. H&auml;nsch,
2006,chemistry,Roger D. Kornberg,for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription
2006,economics,Edmund S. Phelps,for his analysis of intertemporal tradeoffs in macroeconomic policy
2006,literature,Orhan Pamuk,who in the quest for the melancholic soul of his native city has discovered new symbols for the clash and interlacing of cultures
2006,medicine,Andrew Z. Fire,for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA
2006,medicine,Craig C. Mello,for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA
2006,peace,Grameen Bank,for their efforts to create economic and social development from below
2006,peace,Muhammad Yunus,for their efforts to create economic and social development from below
2006,physics,John C. Mather,for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation
2006,physics,George F. Smoot,for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation
2007,chemistry,Gerhard Ertl,for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces
2007,economics,Leonid Hurwicz,for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory
2007,economics,Eric S. Maskin,for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory
2007,economics,Roger B. Myerson,for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory
2007,literature,Doris Lessing,"that epicist of the female experience, who with scepticism, fire and visionary power has subjected a divided civilisation to scrutiny"
2007,medicine,Mario R. Capecchi,for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells
2007,medicine,Sir Martin J. Evans,for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells
2007,medicine,Oliver Smithies,for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells
2007,peace,Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),"for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change"
2007,peace,Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr.,"for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change"
2007,physics,Albert Fert,for the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance
2007,physics,Peter Gr&Atilde;&frac14;nberg,for the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance